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Psychological Symptoms and Smoking Among Turkish University Students
JOURNAL OF YOUTH RESEARCHES
The relationship between smoking and several psychopathologies is long established
(Talati, Keyes, & Hasin, 2016). Epidemiological researches have revealed that smoking
prevalence has been observed in developed western countries and in subgroups of these
countries at varying rates. In most European countries smoking prevalence of individu-
als having mental disorder record has been found to be two times higher than general
population (Lasser et al., 2000). However, there have been no comprehensive researches
regarding the determination of smoking prevalence among the individuals having mental
disorders in developing countries (Chandra et al., 2005).
Turkey is a developing country. Within the scope of the project conducted with World
Health Organization and Center for Diseases Control and Prevention, CDC, it has been
determined that 31.3% of the individuals at the age of 15 and higher use tobacco and
tobacco products either every day or some of the time (TSI, 2008). There is a very limited
number of studies about smoking in individuals who have various forms of mental disor-
ders in Turkey. But, many studies have been conducted to examine the relation between
smoking and mental disorders in developed countries. For example, in a study in the
USA, it is determined that smoking of the individuals having different mental disorders
vary between 40% and 85% (Leonard et al., 2001); this rate is four times higher than
normal population (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008). According to the
results of another research, smoking prevalence observed in the individuals having psy-
chiatric disorder is approximately two times higher than the ones having no psychiatric
disorder (Gwynn et al., 2008).
Among psychiatric patients whose smoking prevalence is observed at a high rate of
58.9%, 55% of those who have anxiety disorders and 51% of those who have mood
disorders have smoking habits (Poirier et al., 2002). It is determined that smokers have
history of major depression, alcohol and drug addiction, unstable and anxious person-
ality. These findings show that smokers have commonly mood, anxiety, substance-use
disorders and personality disorders (Black, Zimmerman, & Coryell, 1999).
Symptoms of behavior disorder are related with smoking (Black, Zimmerman, & Coryell,
1999). In this respect, there has been found a strong relation between heavy smoking
and general mental disorders and their severity. However there has not been any sig-
nificant difference in general mental disorders between non-smokers, ex-smokers and
occasional smokers (Araya, Gaete, Rojas, Fritsch & Lewis, 2007). The effect of nicotine in
cigarettes is an important reason for the prevalence of smoking among people who have
mental disorders. Compared to placebo effect, the effect of nicotine dose reduces de-
pression-dejection, anger-hostility, fatigue-inertia and general negative mood levels (Ju-
liano, Fucito, & Harrell, 2011). In a longitudinal study which is made with the use of MMPI
and covers 20 years, it is determined that people who start smoking have rebellious,
impulsive, sensation seeking and hostile features, among these individuals, the ones who
have smoked for 20 years demonstrate sensation-seeking and hostile features (Lipkus,
Barefoot, Williams, & Siegler, 1994).
